Lawrence's 60-inch cyclotron, with magnet poles 60 inches (5 feet, 1.5
meters) in diameter, at the University of California Lawrence Radiation
Laboratory, Berkeley, in August, 1939, the most powerful accelerator in the
world at the time. Glenn T. Seaborg and Edwin M. McMillan (right) used it to
discover plutonium, neptunium and many other transuranic elements and isotopes,
for which they received the 1951 Nobel Prize in chemistry. The cyclotron's huge
magnet is at left, with the flat accelerating chamber between its poles in the
center. The beamline which analyzed the particles is at right.
A modern cyclotron used for radiation therapy. The magnet is painted yellow.
A cyclotron is a type of particle accelerator invented by Ernest O.Lawrence[1]
in 1932 in which charged particles accelerate outwards from the centre along a spiral path.[2][3]
The particles are held to a spiral trajectory by a static magnetic field and
accelerated by a rapidly varying (radio frequency) electric field. Lawrence was
awarded the 1939 Nobel prize in physics for this invention.[3]
Cyclotrons were the most powerful particle accelerator technology until the
1950s when they were superseded by the synchrotron, and are still used to
produce particle beams in physics and nuclear medicine. The largest
single-magnet cyclotron was the 4.67 m (184 in) synchrocyclotron built between
1940 and 1946 by Lawrence at the University of California at Berkeley,[3]
which could accelerate protons to 730 MeV. The largest cyclotron is the 17.1 m
(56 ft) multimagnet TRIUMF accelerator at the University of British Columbia in
Vancouver, British Columbia which can produce 500 MeV protons.
There are over 1200 cyclotrons used in nuclear medicine worldwide for the
production of radionuclides.[4]
The cyclotron was conceived in Germany in the 1920s. At Aachen University in
1926, the cyclotron was proposed by a co-student of Rolf Widerøe, who rejected
the idea as too complicated to construct.[5][6]
In 1927, Max Steenbeck developed the concept of the cyclotron at Siemens, but a
misunderstanding prevented him from publishing and building the apparatus.[7][8][9]
The first cyclotron patent was filed by Hungarian physicist Leo Szilard in 1929,
while working at Humboldt University of Berlin.[10][11][12][13]
The cyclotron was finally developed and patented[1]
by Ernest Lawrence of the University of California, Berkeley, where it was first
operated in 1932.[14]
Lawrence went on to actually make a working cyclotron using large electromagnets
from Poulsen arc radio transmitters provided by the Federal Telegraph Company.[15]
A graduate student, M. Stanley Livingston, did much of the work of translating
the idea into working hardware.[16] Lawrence read an article about the concept
of a drift tube linac by Rolf Widerøe,[17][18]
who had also been working along similar lines with the betatron concept At the
Radiation Laboratory of the University of California at Berkeley Lawrence
constructed a series of cyclotrons which were the most powerful accelerators in
the world at the time; a 69 cm (27 in) 4.8 MeV machine (1932), a 94 cm (37 in)
8 MeV machine (1937), and a 152 cm (60 in) 16 MeV machine (1939). He also
developed a 467 cm (184 in) synchrocyclotron (1945).
The first European cyclotron was constructed in Leningrad in the physics
department of the Radium Institute, headed by Vitaly Khlopin (ru). This
Leningrad instrument was first proposed in 1932 by George Gamow and Lev
Mysovskii (ru) and was installed and became operative by
1937.[19][20][21]
In Nazi Germany a cyclotron was built in Heidelberg under supervision of Walther
Bothe and Wolfgang Gentner, with support from the Heereswaffenamt, and became
operative in 1943.
Principle of
operation
Diagram showing how a cyclotron works. The magnet's pole pieces are shown
smaller than in reality, they must actually be as wide as the dees to create a
uniform field.
Vacuum chamber of Lawrence 69 cm (27 in) 1932 cyclotron with cover removed,
showing the dees. The 13,000 V RF accelerating potential at about 27 MHz is
applied to the dees by the two feedlines visible at top right. The beam emerges
from the dees and strikes the target in the chamber at bottom.
Diagram of cyclotron operation from Lawrence's 1934 patent. The "D" shaped
electrodes are enclosed in a flat vacuum chamber, which is installed in a narrow
gap between the two poles of a large magnet.
Sketch of a
particle being accelerated in a cyclotron, and being ejected through a beamline.
A cyclotron accelerates a charged particle beam using a high frequency
alternating voltage which is applied between two hollow "D"-shaped sheet metal
electrodes called "dees" inside a vacuum chamber.[22]
The dees are placed face to face with a narrow gap between them, creating a
cylindrical space within them for the particles to move. The particles are
injected into the center of this space. The dees are located between the poles
of a large electromagnet which applies a static magnetic field B perpendicular
to the electrode plane. The magnetic field causes the particles path to bend in
a circle due to the Lorentz force perpendicular to their direction of motion.
If the particles' speed were constant, they would travel in a circular path
within the dees under the influence of the magnetic field. However a radio
frequency (RF) alternating voltage of several thousand volts is applied between
the dees. The frequency is set so that the particles make one circuit during a
single cycle of the voltage. To achieve this, the frequency must match the
particle's cyclotron resonance frequency
,
where B is the magnetic field strength, q is the electric charge of
the particle, and m is the relativistic mass of the charged particle. Each time
after the particles pass to the other dee electrode the polarity of the RF
voltage reverses. Therefore, each time the particles cross the gap from one dee
electrode to the other, the electric field is in the correct direction to
accelerate them. The particles' increasing speed due to these pushes causes them
to move in a larger radius circle with each rotation, so the particles move in a
spiral path outward from the center to the rim of the dees. When they reach the
rim the particles exit the dees through a small gap between them, and hit a
target located at the exit point at the rim of the chamber, or leave the
cyclotron through an evacuated beam tube to hit a remote target. Various
materials may be used for the target, and the nuclear reactions due to the
collisions will create secondary particles which may be guided outside of the
cyclotron and into instruments for analysis.
The cyclotron was the first "cyclical" accelerator. The advantage of the
cyclotron design over the existing "electrostatic" accelerators of the time such
as the Cockcroft-Walton accelerator and Van de Graaff generator, was that in
these machines the particles were only accelerated once by the voltage, so the
particles' energy was equal to the accelerating voltage on the machine, which
was limited by air breakdown to a few million volts. In the cyclotron, in
contrast, the particles encounter the accelerating voltage many times during
their spiral path, and so are accelerated many times,[1] so the output energy
can be many times the accelerating voltage.
Particle energy
Since the particles are accelerated by the voltage many times, the final
energy of the particles is not dependent on the accelerating voltage but the
diameter of the accelerating chamber, the dees. Cyclotrons can only accelerate
particles to speeds much slower than the speed of light, nonrelativistic speeds.
For nonrelativistic particles, the centripetal force
required to
keep them in their curved path is
where is the
particle's mass,
its velocity,
and is the
radius of the path. This force is provided by the Lorentz force
of the magnetic
field
where is the
particle's charge. The particles reach their maximum energy at the periphery of
the dees, where the radius of their path is
the radius
of the dees. Equating these two forces
So the output energy of the particles is
Therefore, the limit to the cyclotron's output energy for a given type of
particle is the strength of the magnetic field
, which is
limited to about 2 T for ferromagnetic electromagnets, and the radius of the dees
, which is
determined by the diameter of the magnet's pole pieces. So very large magnets
were constructed for cyclotrons, culminating in Lawrence's 1946
synchrocyclotron, which had pole pieces 4.67 m (184 in) in diameter.
Relativistic
considerations
A French cyclotron, produced in Zurich, Switzerland in 1937. The vacuum chamber containing the dees (at left)
has been removed from the magnet (red, at right)
In the nonrelativistic approximation, the frequency does not depend upon the
radius of the particle's orbit, since the particle's mass is constant. As the
beam spirals out, its frequency does not decrease, and it must continue to
accelerate, as it is travelling a greater distance in the same time period. In
contrast to this approximation, as particles approach the speed of light, their
relativistic mass increases, requiring either modifications to the frequency,
leading to the synchrocyclotron, or modifications to the magnetic field during
the acceleration, which leads to the isochronous cyclotron. The relativistic mass can be rewritten as
,
where
is the
particlerest mass,
is the
relative velocity, and
is the Lorentz factor.
The relativistic cyclotron frequency and angular frequency can be rewritten
as
,
and
,
where
would
be the cyclotron frequency in classical approximation,
would be
the cyclotron angular frequency in classical approximation.
The gyroradius for a particle moving in a static magnetic field is then given by
,
because
where v would be the (linear) velocity.
Synchrocyclotron
A synchrocyclotron is a cyclotron in which the frequency of the driving RF
electric field is varied to compensate for relativistic effects as the
particles' velocity begins to approach the speed of light. This is in contrast
to the classical cyclotron, where the frequency was held constant, thus leading
to the synchrocyclotron operation frequency being
,
where is
the classical cyclotron frequency and
again is the
relative velocity of the particle beam. The rest mass of an electron is 511 keV/c2,
so the frequency correction is 1% for a magnetic vacuum tube with a 5.11 keV/c2
direct current accelerating voltage. The proton mass is nearly two thousand
times the electron mass, so the 1% correction energy is about 9 MeV, which is
sufficient to induce
nuclear reactions.
Isochronous cyclotron
An alternative to the synchrocyclotron is the isochronous cyclotron,
which has a magnetic field that increases with radius, rather than with time.
Isochronous cyclotrons are capable of producing much greater beam current than
synchrocyclotrons, but require azimuthal variations in the field strength to
provide a strong focusing effect and keep the particles captured in their spiral
trajectory. For this reason, an isochronous cyclotron is also called an "AVF (azimuthal
varying field) cyclotron".[23]
This solution for focusing the particle beam was proposed by L. H. Thomas in 1938.[23]
Recalling therelativistic gyroradius
and the
relativistic cyclotron frequency
, one can
choose to be
proportional to the Lorentz factor,
. This
results in the relation
which
again only depends on the velocity
, like in the
non-relativistic case. Also, the cyclotron frequency is constant in this case.
The transverse de-focusing effect of this radial field gradient is
compensated by ridges on the magnet faces which vary the field azimuthally as
well. This allows particles to be accelerated continuously, on every period of
the radio frequency (RF),
rather than in bursts as in most other accelerator types. This principle that
alternating field gradients have a net focusing effect is called strong
focusing. It was obscurely known theoretically long before it was put
into practice.[24]
Examples of isochronous cyclotrons abound; in fact almost all modern cyclotrons
use azimuthally-varying fields. The TRIUMF cyclotron mentioned below is the
largest with an outer orbit radius of 7.9 metres, extracting protons at up to
510 MeV, which is 3/4 of the speed of light. The PSI cyclotron reaches higher
energy but is smaller because of using a higher magnetic field.
Usage
For several decades, cyclotrons were the best source of high-energy beams for
nuclear physics experiments; several cyclotrons are still in use for this type
of research. The results enable the calculation of various properties, such as
the mean spacing between atoms and the creation of various collision products.
Subsequent chemical and particle analysis of the target material may give
insight into nuclear transmutation of the elements used in the target.
Cyclotrons can be used in particle therapy to treat cancer. Ion beams from
cyclotrons can be used, as in proton therapy, to penetrate the body and kill
tumors by radiation damage, while minimizing damage to healthy tissue along
their path. Cyclotron beams can be used to bombard other atoms to produce
short-lived positron-emitting isotopes suitable for PET imaging. More recently
cyclotrons currently installed at hospitals for particle therapy have been
retrofitted to enable them to produce technetium -99m.[25]
Technetium-99m is a diagnostic isotope in short supply due to difficulties at
Canada's Chalk River facility.
Advantages and
limitations
Lawrence's 60-inch cyclotron, circa 1939, showing the beam of accelerated
ions (likely protons or deuterons) exiting the machine and ionizing the
surrounding air causing a blue glow.
The cyclotron was an improvement over the linear accelerators (linacs) that
were available when it was invented, being more cost- and space-effective due to
the iterated interaction of the particles with the accelerating field. In the
1920s, it was not possible to generate the high power, high-frequency radio
waves which are used in modern linacs (generated by klystrons). As such,
impractically long linac structures were required for higher-energy particles.
The compactness of the cyclotron reduces other costs as well, such as
foundations, radiation shielding, and the enclosing building. Cyclotrons have a
single electrical driver, which saves both money and power. Furthermore,
cyclotrons are able to produce a continuous stream of particles at the target,
so the average power passed from a particle beam into a target is relatively
high.
M. Stanley Livingston and Ernest O.Lawrence (right) in front of Lawrence's
69 cm (27 in) cyclotron at the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory. The curving metal
frame is the magnet's core, the large cylindrical boxes contain the coils of
wire that generate the magnetic field. The vacuum chamber containing the "dee"
electrodes is in the center between the magnet's poles.
The spiral path of the cyclotron beam can only "sync up" with klystron-type
(constant frequency) voltage sources if the accelerated particles are
approximately obeying Newton's Laws of Motion. If the particles become fast
enough that relativistic effects become important, the beam becomes out of phase
with the oscillating electric field, and cannot receive any additional
acceleration. The classical cyclotron is therefore only capable of accelerating
particles up to a few percent of the speed of light. To accommodate increased
mass the magnetic field may be modified by appropriately shaping the pole pieces
as in the isochronous cyclotrons, operating in a pulsed mode and changing the
frequency applied to the dees as in the synchrocyclotrons, either of which is
limited by the diminishing cost effectiveness of making larger machines. Cost
limitations have been overcome by employing the more complex synchrotron or
modern, klystron-driven linear accelerators, both of which have the advantage of
scalability, offering more power within an improved cost structure as the
machines are made larger.
Notable examples
One of the world's largest cyclotrons is at the RIKEN laboratory in Japan.
Called the SRC, for Superconducting Ring Cyclotron, it has 6 separated
superconducting sectors, and is 19 m in diameter and 8 m high. Built to
accelerate heavy ions, its maximum magnetic field is 3.8 T, yielding a bending
ability of 8 T·m. The total weight of the cyclotron is 8,300 t. The Riken
magnetic field covers from 3.5 m radius to 5.5 m with the maximum beam radius of
about 5 m (200 in). It has accelerated uranium ions to 345 MeV per atomic mass unit.[26]
TRIUMF, Canada's national laboratory for nuclear and particle physics, houses
the world's largest cyclotron.[27]
The 18 m diameter, 4,000 t main magnet produces a field of 0.46 T while a 23 MHz
94 kV electric field is used to accelerate the 300 μA beam.The TRIUMF field goes
from 0 to 813 cm (0 to 320 in) radius with the maximum beam radius of 790 cm
(310 in). Its large size is partly a result of using negative hydrogen ions
rather than protons; this requires a lower magnetic field to reduce EM stripping
of the loosely bound electrons. The advantage is that extraction is simpler;
multi-energy, multi-beams can be extracted by inserting thin carbon stripping
foils at appropriate radii. TRIUMF is run by a consortium of eighteen Canadian
universities and is located at the University of British Columbia, Vancouver,
Canada.
Related technologies
The spiraling of electrons in a cylindrical vacuum chamber within a
transverse magnetic field is also employed in the magnetron, a device for
producing high frequency radio waves (microwaves). The synchrotron moves the
particles through a path of constant radius, allowing it to be made as a pipe
and so of much larger radius than is practical with the cyclotron and
synchrocyclotron. The larger radius allows the use of numerous magnets, each of
which imparts angular momentum and so allows particles of higher velocity (mass)
to be kept within the bounds of the evacuated pipe. The magnetic field strength
of each of the bending magnets is increased as the particles gain energy in
order to keep the bending angle constant.
In fiction
The United States Department of Defense famously asked for dailies of the
Superman comic strip to be pulled in April 1945 for having Superman bombarded
with the radiation from a cyclotron.[28]
In 1950 however, in Atom Man vs. Superman, Lex Luthor uses a cyclotron to start
an earthquake.
Jump up ^
Nave, C. R. (2012).
"Cyclotron".
Hyperphysics. Dept. of Physics and Astronomy, Georgia State University.
Retrieved October 26, 2014.
External link in
|work= (help)
Jump up ^Per F Dahl: From
Nuclear Transmutation to Nuclear Fission, 1932-1939. CRC Press, 2002,
ISBN 978-0750308656, p. 62
Jump up ^Pedro Waloschek:
Rolf Wideröe über sich selbst: Leben und Werk eines Pioniers des
Beschleunigerbaues und der Strahlentherapie. Vieweg+Teubner , 1994,
ISBN 978-3528065867,( in German ) p. 43
Jump up ^Pedro Waloschek:
Todesstrahlen als Lebensretter: Tatsachenberichte aus dem Dritten Reich.
Books on Demand GmbH,Norderstedt , 2004,
ISBN 978-3833409790, ( In German ) p. 187
Jump up ^Per F Dahl,Robert
W. Seidel: Lawrence and His Laboratory: A History of the Lawrence Berkeley
Laboratory, Volume I. University of California Press, 1989,
ISBN 978-0520064263, p. 81-82
Jump up ^Pedro Waloschek:
Rolf Wideröe über sich selbst: Leben und Werk eines Pioniers des
Beschleunigerbaues und der Strahlentherapie. Vieweg+Teubner, 1994,
ISBN 978-3528065867, ( in German ) p. 69
Jump up ^Per F Dahl: From
Nuclear Transmutation to Nuclear Fission, 1932-1939. CRC Press, 2002,
ISBN 978-0750308656, p. 63
Jump up ^Istvan Hargittai:
The Martians of Science : Five Physicists Who Changed the Twentieth Century.
Oxford University Press, 2008,
ISBN 978-0195365566, p. 47
Jump up ^Cutler J.
Cleveland,Christopher G. Morris: Handbook of Energy: Chronologies, Top Ten
Lists, and Word Clouds. Elsevier Science; 1 edition, 2014,
ISBN 978-0124170131, p. 371
Niell, F. M. (2005).
"Resonance Mapping and the Cyclotron".—An
experiment done by Fred M. Niell, III his senior year of high school (1994–95)
with which he won the overall grand prize in the
ISEF.
Rutgers Cyclotron—Students at
Rutgers University built a 30 cm (12 in) 1 MeV cyclotron as an undergraduate
project, which is now used for a senior-level undergraduate and a graduate lab
course.
Hiçbir
yazı/ resim izinsiz olarak kullanılamaz!! Telif hakları uyarınca
bu bir suçtur..! Tüm hakları Çetin BAL' a aittir. Kaynak gösterilmek şartıyla siteden
alıntı yapılabilir.
Cyclotron
Lawrence's 60-inch cyclotron, with magnet poles 60 inches (5 feet, 1.5 meters) in diameter, at the University of California Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, in August, 1939, the most powerful accelerator in the world at the time. Glenn T. Seaborg and Edwin M. McMillan (right) used it to discover plutonium, neptunium and many other transuranic elements and isotopes, for which they received the 1951 Nobel Prize in chemistry. The cyclotron's huge magnet is at left, with the flat accelerating chamber between its poles in the center. The beamline which analyzed the particles is at right.
A modern cyclotron used for radiation therapy. The magnet is painted yellow.
A cyclotron is a type of particle accelerator invented by Ernest O.Lawrence[1] in 1932 in which charged particles accelerate outwards from the centre along a spiral path.[2][3] The particles are held to a spiral trajectory by a static magnetic field and accelerated by a rapidly varying (radio frequency) electric field. Lawrence was awarded the 1939 Nobel prize in physics for this invention.[3] Cyclotrons were the most powerful particle accelerator technology until the 1950s when they were superseded by the synchrotron, and are still used to produce particle beams in physics and nuclear medicine. The largest single-magnet cyclotron was the 4.67 m (184 in) synchrocyclotron built between 1940 and 1946 by Lawrence at the University of California at Berkeley,[3] which could accelerate protons to 730 MeV. The largest cyclotron is the 17.1 m (56 ft) multimagnet TRIUMF accelerator at the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia which can produce 500 MeV protons.
There are over 1200 cyclotrons used in nuclear medicine worldwide for the production of radionuclides.[4]
Contents
History
The cyclotron was conceived in Germany in the 1920s. At Aachen University in 1926, the cyclotron was proposed by a co-student of Rolf Widerøe, who rejected the idea as too complicated to construct.[5][6] In 1927, Max Steenbeck developed the concept of the cyclotron at Siemens, but a misunderstanding prevented him from publishing and building the apparatus.[7][8][9] The first cyclotron patent was filed by Hungarian physicist Leo Szilard in 1929, while working at Humboldt University of Berlin.[10][11][12][13] The cyclotron was finally developed and patented[1] by Ernest Lawrence of the University of California, Berkeley, where it was first operated in 1932.[14] Lawrence went on to actually make a working cyclotron using large electromagnets from Poulsen arc radio transmitters provided by the Federal Telegraph Company.[15] A graduate student, M. Stanley Livingston, did much of the work of translating the idea into working hardware.[16] Lawrence read an article about the concept of a drift tube linac by Rolf Widerøe,[17][18] who had also been working along similar lines with the betatron concept At the Radiation Laboratory of the University of California at Berkeley Lawrence constructed a series of cyclotrons which were the most powerful accelerators in the world at the time; a 69 cm (27 in) 4.8 MeV machine (1932), a 94 cm (37 in) 8 MeV machine (1937), and a 152 cm (60 in) 16 MeV machine (1939). He also developed a 467 cm (184 in) synchrocyclotron (1945).
The first European cyclotron was constructed in Leningrad in the physics department of the Radium Institute, headed by Vitaly Khlopin (ru). This Leningrad instrument was first proposed in 1932 by George Gamow and Lev Mysovskii (ru) and was installed and became operative by
1937.[19][20][21] In Nazi Germany a cyclotron was built in Heidelberg under supervision of Walther Bothe and Wolfgang Gentner, with support from the Heereswaffenamt, and became operative in 1943.
Principle of operation
Diagram showing how a cyclotron works. The magnet's pole pieces are shown smaller than in reality, they must actually be as wide as the dees to create a uniform field.
Vacuum chamber of Lawrence 69 cm (27 in) 1932 cyclotron with cover removed, showing the dees. The 13,000 V RF accelerating potential at about 27 MHz is applied to the dees by the two feedlines visible at top right. The beam emerges from the dees and strikes the target in the chamber at bottom.
Diagram of cyclotron operation from Lawrence's 1934 patent. The "D" shaped electrodes are enclosed in a flat vacuum chamber, which is installed in a narrow gap between the two poles of a large magnet.
Sketch of a
particle being accelerated in a cyclotron, and being ejected through a beamline.
A cyclotron accelerates a charged particle beam using a high frequency alternating voltage which is applied between two hollow "D"-shaped sheet metal electrodes called "dees" inside a vacuum chamber.[22] The dees are placed face to face with a narrow gap between them, creating a cylindrical space within them for the particles to move. The particles are injected into the center of this space. The dees are located between the poles of a large electromagnet which applies a static magnetic field B perpendicular to the electrode plane. The magnetic field causes the particles path to bend in a circle due to the Lorentz force perpendicular to their direction of motion.
If the particles' speed were constant, they would travel in a circular path within the dees under the influence of the magnetic field. However a radio frequency (RF) alternating voltage of several thousand volts is applied between the dees. The frequency is set so that the particles make one circuit during a single cycle of the voltage. To achieve this, the frequency must match the particle's cyclotron resonance frequency
where B is the magnetic field strength, q is the electric charge of the particle, and m is the relativistic mass of the charged particle. Each time after the particles pass to the other dee electrode the polarity of the RF voltage reverses. Therefore, each time the particles cross the gap from one dee electrode to the other, the electric field is in the correct direction to accelerate them. The particles' increasing speed due to these pushes causes them to move in a larger radius circle with each rotation, so the particles move in a spiral path outward from the center to the rim of the dees. When they reach the rim the particles exit the dees through a small gap between them, and hit a target located at the exit point at the rim of the chamber, or leave the cyclotron through an evacuated beam tube to hit a remote target. Various materials may be used for the target, and the nuclear reactions due to the collisions will create secondary particles which may be guided outside of the cyclotron and into instruments for analysis.
The cyclotron was the first "cyclical" accelerator. The advantage of the cyclotron design over the existing "electrostatic" accelerators of the time such as the Cockcroft-Walton accelerator and Van de Graaff generator, was that in these machines the particles were only accelerated once by the voltage, so the particles' energy was equal to the accelerating voltage on the machine, which was limited by air breakdown to a few million volts. In the cyclotron, in contrast, the particles encounter the accelerating voltage many times during their spiral path, and so are accelerated many times,[1] so the output energy can be many times the accelerating voltage.
Particle energy
Since the particles are accelerated by the voltage many times, the final energy of the particles is not dependent on the accelerating voltage but the diameter of the accelerating chamber, the dees. Cyclotrons can only accelerate particles to speeds much slower than the speed of light, nonrelativistic speeds. For nonrelativistic particles, the centripetal force
required to
keep them in their curved path is
where
is the
particle's mass,
its velocity,
and 
is the
radius of the path. This force is provided by the Lorentz force
of the magnetic
field 
where
is the
particle's charge. The particles reach their maximum energy at the periphery of
the dees, where the radius of their path is
the radius
of the dees. Equating these two forces
So the output energy of the particles is
Therefore, the limit to the cyclotron's output energy for a given type of particle is the strength of the magnetic field
, which is
limited to about 2 T for ferromagnetic electromagnets, and the radius of the dees
, which is
determined by the diameter of the magnet's pole pieces. So very large magnets
were constructed for cyclotrons, culminating in Lawrence's 1946
synchrocyclotron, which had pole pieces 4.67 m (184 in) in diameter.
Relativistic considerations
A French cyclotron, produced in Zurich, Switzerland in 1937. The vacuum chamber containing the dees (at left) has been removed from the magnet (red, at right)
In the nonrelativistic approximation, the frequency does not depend upon the radius of the particle's orbit, since the particle's mass is constant. As the beam spirals out, its frequency does not decrease, and it must continue to accelerate, as it is travelling a greater distance in the same time period. In contrast to this approximation, as particles approach the speed of light, their relativistic mass increases, requiring either modifications to the frequency, leading to the synchrocyclotron, or modifications to the magnetic field during the acceleration, which leads to the isochronous cyclotron. The relativistic mass can be rewritten as
where
The relativistic cyclotron frequency and angular frequency can be rewritten as
where
The gyroradius for a particle moving in a static magnetic field is then given by
because
where v would be the (linear) velocity.
Synchrocyclotron
A synchrocyclotron is a cyclotron in which the frequency of the driving RF electric field is varied to compensate for relativistic effects as the particles' velocity begins to approach the speed of light. This is in contrast to the classical cyclotron, where the frequency was held constant, thus leading to the synchrocyclotron operation frequency being
where
is
the classical cyclotron frequency and
again is the
relative velocity of the particle beam. The rest mass of an electron is 511 keV/c2,
so the frequency correction is 1% for a magnetic vacuum tube with a 5.11 keV/c2
direct current accelerating voltage. The proton mass is nearly two thousand
times the electron mass, so the 1% correction energy is about 9 MeV, which is
sufficient to induce
nuclear reactions.
Isochronous cyclotron
An alternative to the synchrocyclotron is the isochronous cyclotron, which has a magnetic field that increases with radius, rather than with time. Isochronous cyclotrons are capable of producing much greater beam current than synchrocyclotrons, but require azimuthal variations in the field strength to provide a strong focusing effect and keep the particles captured in their spiral trajectory. For this reason, an isochronous cyclotron is also called an "AVF (azimuthal varying field) cyclotron".[23] This solution for focusing the particle beam was proposed by L. H. Thomas in 1938.[23] Recalling therelativistic gyroradius
and the
relativistic cyclotron frequency
, one can
choose 
to be
proportional to the Lorentz factor,
. This
results in the relation
which
again only depends on the velocity
, like in the
non-relativistic case. Also, the cyclotron frequency is constant in this case.
The transverse de-focusing effect of this radial field gradient is compensated by ridges on the magnet faces which vary the field azimuthally as well. This allows particles to be accelerated continuously, on every period of the radio frequency (RF), rather than in bursts as in most other accelerator types. This principle that alternating field gradients have a net focusing effect is called strong focusing. It was obscurely known theoretically long before it was put into practice.[24] Examples of isochronous cyclotrons abound; in fact almost all modern cyclotrons use azimuthally-varying fields. The TRIUMF cyclotron mentioned below is the largest with an outer orbit radius of 7.9 metres, extracting protons at up to 510 MeV, which is 3/4 of the speed of light. The PSI cyclotron reaches higher energy but is smaller because of using a higher magnetic field.
Usage
For several decades, cyclotrons were the best source of high-energy beams for nuclear physics experiments; several cyclotrons are still in use for this type of research. The results enable the calculation of various properties, such as the mean spacing between atoms and the creation of various collision products. Subsequent chemical and particle analysis of the target material may give insight into nuclear transmutation of the elements used in the target.
Cyclotrons can be used in particle therapy to treat cancer. Ion beams from cyclotrons can be used, as in proton therapy, to penetrate the body and kill tumors by radiation damage, while minimizing damage to healthy tissue along their path. Cyclotron beams can be used to bombard other atoms to produce short-lived positron-emitting isotopes suitable for PET imaging. More recently cyclotrons currently installed at hospitals for particle therapy have been retrofitted to enable them to produce technetium
-99m.[25] Technetium-99m is a diagnostic isotope in short supply due to difficulties at Canada's Chalk River facility.
Advantages and limitations
Lawrence's 60-inch cyclotron, circa 1939, showing the beam of accelerated ions (likely protons or deuterons) exiting the machine and ionizing the surrounding air causing a blue glow.
The cyclotron was an improvement over the linear accelerators (linacs) that were available when it was invented, being more cost- and space-effective due to the iterated interaction of the particles with the accelerating field. In the 1920s, it was not possible to generate the high power, high-frequency radio waves which are used in modern linacs (generated by klystrons). As such, impractically long linac structures were required for higher-energy particles. The compactness of the cyclotron reduces other costs as well, such as foundations, radiation shielding, and the enclosing building. Cyclotrons have a single electrical driver, which saves both money and power. Furthermore, cyclotrons are able to produce a continuous stream of particles at the target, so the average power passed from a particle beam into a target is relatively high.
M. Stanley Livingston and Ernest O.Lawrence (right) in front of Lawrence's 69 cm (27 in) cyclotron at the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory. The curving metal frame is the magnet's core, the large cylindrical boxes contain the coils of wire that generate the magnetic field. The vacuum chamber containing the "dee" electrodes is in the center between the magnet's poles.
The spiral path of the cyclotron beam can only "sync up" with klystron-type (constant frequency) voltage sources if the accelerated particles are approximately obeying Newton's Laws of Motion. If the particles become fast enough that relativistic effects become important, the beam becomes out of phase with the oscillating electric field, and cannot receive any additional acceleration. The classical cyclotron is therefore only capable of accelerating particles up to a few percent of the speed of light. To accommodate increased mass the magnetic field may be modified by appropriately shaping the pole pieces as in the isochronous cyclotrons, operating in a pulsed mode and changing the frequency applied to the dees as in the synchrocyclotrons, either of which is limited by the diminishing cost effectiveness of making larger machines. Cost limitations have been overcome by employing the more complex synchrotron or modern, klystron-driven linear accelerators, both of which have the advantage of scalability, offering more power within an improved cost structure as the machines are made larger.
Notable examples
One of the world's largest cyclotrons is at the RIKEN laboratory in Japan. Called the SRC, for Superconducting Ring Cyclotron, it has 6 separated superconducting sectors, and is 19 m in diameter and 8 m high. Built to accelerate heavy ions, its maximum magnetic field is 3.8 T, yielding a bending ability of 8 T·m. The total weight of the cyclotron is 8,300 t. The Riken magnetic field covers from 3.5 m radius to 5.5 m with the maximum beam radius of about 5 m (200 in). It has accelerated uranium ions to 345 MeV per atomic mass unit.[26]
TRIUMF, Canada's national laboratory for nuclear and particle physics, houses the world's largest cyclotron.[27] The 18 m diameter, 4,000 t main magnet produces a field of 0.46 T while a 23 MHz 94 kV electric field is used to accelerate the 300 μA beam.The TRIUMF field goes from 0 to 813 cm (0 to 320 in) radius with the maximum beam radius of 790 cm (310 in). Its large size is partly a result of using negative hydrogen ions rather than protons; this requires a lower magnetic field to reduce EM stripping of the loosely bound electrons. The advantage is that extraction is simpler; multi-energy, multi-beams can be extracted by inserting thin carbon stripping foils at appropriate radii. TRIUMF is run by a consortium of eighteen Canadian universities and is located at the University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada.
Related technologies
The spiraling of electrons in a cylindrical vacuum chamber within a transverse magnetic field is also employed in the magnetron, a device for producing high frequency radio waves (microwaves). The synchrotron moves the particles through a path of constant radius, allowing it to be made as a pipe and so of much larger radius than is practical with the cyclotron and synchrocyclotron. The larger radius allows the use of numerous magnets, each of which imparts angular momentum and so allows particles of higher velocity (mass) to be kept within the bounds of the evacuated pipe. The magnetic field strength of each of the bending magnets is increased as the particles gain energy in order to keep the bending angle constant.
In fiction
The United States Department of Defense famously asked for dailies of the Superman comic strip to be pulled in April 1945 for having Superman bombarded with the radiation from a cyclotron.[28] In 1950 however, in Atom Man vs. Superman, Lex Luthor uses a cyclotron to start an earthquake.
See also
References
|work=(help)Further reading
External links
General
Facilities
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